英語的擴散與學術自由之戰

【這是2023年12月15日何春蕤受邀在中央大學英文系二年級「溝通與演講」課上針對學生閱讀兩篇論文後的提問所展開的回應,在課程中以英文發表,現在提供中文稿。兩篇閱讀文章為:”Another Look at the Spread of English,”  以及”In Defence of Academic Research and Internet Freedom of Expression”  】

謝謝各位的閱讀和提問,我其實從未想過這麼多年以後,我早年的文章還會被人嚴肅的對待。這年頭肯花時間好好讀、細細啃的人,當然值得我也同樣的嚴肅對待。我想回看這兩篇文章的寫作,來回應我對你們所提的問題,同時也示範一種處理知識的方式。

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”Another Look at the Spread of English”是我1980年代還是研究生時代的課程作業論文,後來才在正式的學術會議中宣讀發表。基本上我做的只是研究生做學問的第一步,也就是在面對任何主題時,先嘗試理解當前圍繞著這個題目已經存在著怎樣的看法,了解相關的知識圖譜。這樣不但可以幫助我理解研究的主題已經有了怎樣的知識積累,怎樣的討論和爭議,不要又從頭做白工;同時也可以在過程中刺激自己開發出可能的新思考與關切。畢竟,對事物的認知從不是在真空中與它相遇,而總是同時看到別人的看法,別人的思考,以及對自己知識儲備的重新檢視和整理。對準備走上學術道路的研究生而言,這是做學問的第一步;對任何知識份子而言,這也是認識世界、明辨是非的基本功。

在後來的數十年裡,我因為時局的巨大變化捲入了台灣的各種社會運動,發展了別的研究興趣,特別是性/別研究領域,也就沒有繼續追蹤英語的擴散這個話題,因此我不熟悉這個領域後來的變化。但是現在看來,對當時這篇論文的研究進路倒是有了新的反思。

在那篇文章中,我只是很簡單的把社會語言學領域的研究進路做了一次定位、分類和批評而已。這種社會-歷史-政治的研究方法在1990年代台灣政運社運越來越蓬勃發展後,就成為一種表現進步身段的公式──好像只要從批判的角度指出事物的政治含意和立場,建構知識的工作就完成了。這有點像通俗的女性主義宣示一樣,只要把對方扣上了父權、男權、性別歧視的帽子,就結束了,完全不覺得有需要進一步更深刻更廣泛的去理解和分析,是什麼樣的條件脈絡促成了對話的對象所採用的立場,那樣的立場其實有著怎樣的(即便有限的)合理性。這個態度所預設的漠視和蔑視,就是一種知識的傲慢。這也是我那篇文章在做出某些小小貢獻的同時所暴露出的缺陷。

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接下來我想把英語的擴散這個題目拉回到台灣。早年推動英語教育,當然是在美國的文化影響力之下進行的,例如1960年代我們的青春期都是在熱門的西方搖滾流行音樂中自然接觸到英文。剛剛發展的台灣電視產業在製作節目的能力上還很有限,因此進口了大量美國電視節目,翻譯後直接播放。每天晚上三整小時的英語節目就是我學英文、熟悉美國文化的重要管道。美國文化的影響強度還可以從另外一個例子看到:各大學成立的外文系/英文系一直都是文科的最高分入學,最優秀的文科學生都以學外語作為身分的標記。對個人而言,學英語是改善個人出路、提升競爭力的捷徑;對整體而言,更是國際化現代化的工具,是證明國家進步的不二法門。

經過數十年的積累,普及的兒童美語班、強化了的國高中英語課程,都使得英語學習越來越提早開始。富裕社會越來越多的出國機會和短期國際交換經驗,也使得年輕的孩子更加熟悉英語的使用。台灣民眾的英文程度可以說整體提升了,英語學習的環境和歷史脈絡不再侷限於學校的正式課程,這也使得大學裡的英文系/外文系遭遇了生存危機,在校內失去被期待的語言教學功能,只能透過更加強化課程的西方思想內容和個人的學術研究成果來證明自身的存在價值。

如果說在教育上,英語教學還有一些教育意義,那麼在英語的應用上,手機科技更提供了方便而快速的翻譯功能,任何人都可以帶著手機走遍天下,不必再自己親身學習任何外國語。在這個急劇變化的條件下,最近這幾年台灣官方卻仍然積極而強勢的推出新的Bilingual 2030英語政策,以雙語而非英語作為外國語或第二語為目標,不但各級學校要加大英語教學的力度,英語也要融入政府的運作,不管是法條規章或公務員的訓練都趨向建立雙語社會。這種對雙語政策的積極與堅持究竟有何目的呢?

我的看法是,如果說早年的英語教育政策還是努力學習世界流行的外國語,也就是英語(而現在世界瘋學的其實已經是中文),而且學習英語的主要目標是工具性的,是經濟取向的(為了國際貿易所需);那麼當下的英語教育政策則有著打造如新加坡那樣的多語國家的新政治願景。說得直白一些,雙語政策的效果就是要打造一個新的、不以中文、中華、中國為主要認同的新國家,也就是以國際化、多元化為名,進一步淡化「中」的認同。在大多數既存的雙語社會裡,雙語並行主要是不同民族和文化接觸交融然後以政策穩定並存的結果。像台灣這樣強勢推動並且從一開始就鎖定英語的雙語教育,已經不是什麼工具性的決策,而更是一個以意識形態為本、以買辦地位為目標的舉措

我這個解讀當然是一個政治判斷,而我也同意歷史政治的判斷有其簡化的傾向,但是它確實是一個不可否認的存在。早些時候推進的「母語教育政策」是另外一個例子。在其中,母語被定義為指向特定地理意義的本土語言,因此能把本來也並非本土語言的河洛話定義為母語,但是排除了同樣是外來的所有大陸省分的方言母語。我的母語四川話因此被剝奪了存活的環境條件,甚至被視為是不可取的敵對力量。顯然這種母語政策是一個具有高度政治含意的決策,只要放在台灣高度政治化的「去中」「反中」趨勢和取向裡來看,這種政治含意就昭然若揭了。

考量我們面對的現實,現代科技的翻譯功能已經使大家可以和世界大部分不同人種和語言溝通,不必再需要學習英語作為中介語言(抖音上,中國人民在例如敘利亞和非洲都不必使用英文中介,而直接用翻譯軟件與當地民眾對話,英語的必要性確實已經降低)。更重要的是,世界都在學習中文和中國文化,而我們的教育政策卻枉顧我們已有的語言優勢和文化傳承,反而要我們仇視或淺化中文,切割歷史。最近北一女國文教師對108課綱刪除重要歷史語文文章的批判就指出了這個事實。活在地緣政治越來越赤裸裸相對的現實裡,偏執的語言政策才是今日思考英語擴散應該面對的議題:那已經不是一個強勢語言入侵在地文化社會的問題,而是在地政權主動選擇依附依賴並以此鞏固既有國際秩序的選擇。

你們問:要如何透過關注英文在權力脈絡裡的使用來提升批判能力?我的回答是:那你就需要更加關注各種各樣更為寬廣的權力脈絡,關注那些根本就在英語語用脈絡之外的具體地緣政治操作。畢竟,語言從來就不是終極的視野。

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我收到的第三個問題提到我在官司中所面對的epistemic violence, quieting, and silencing。這三個範疇是這樣被描述的:epistemic violence (conservative audiences not being able to reciprocate communicatively due to harmful ignorance), quieting (conservative audiences not being able to treat you as a epistemic contributor or knower) and smothering (conservative audiences being incompetent to listening to what is unfamiliar bodies of knowledge and skills to them)。

值得注意的是,括弧裡描述的對象都是保守的群眾,而且他們都是缺乏傾聽或理解的能力的。這種描述不但把保守群眾定位成沒有能力和知識的人,也假設了只有他們才是暴力壓力的來源。

這個描述或認定,我認為是有問題的。

在我2003年打動物戀網路連結官司的特定脈絡裡,將我拉進公堂的保守團體其實完全不用粗暴或霸道,因為它們根本不用面對我,不用直接施加壓力,只要把案子送進法院,法院自然會接手處理我。而司法世界的運作,完全不容許任何溝通或解釋,我連發言的機會和自由都沒有,只能任憑檢察官和法官處理。語言學家使用的概念範疇,就司法空間的運作而言,是沒有意義的。理論的複雜繁衍在這種時刻和脈絡中是蒼白的。

但是,如果我們拿掉「保守」這個字眼,暫停對保守群眾的成見,那麼這些概念範疇或許還是可以幫助我們在此刻更好的理解另外一種新的發展。

過去20年來,在台灣以至於整體所謂民主世界裡,群眾暴力常常表現為一種對政治正確的強烈堅持和正義感,而對這種進步表現的任何挑戰因此都被視為過時、保守、退步、不屑一顧,而對不同意見所投注的強大反智、非理性的反撲屢見不鮮。值得注意的是,這些並不是保守群眾的特有表現,事實上,在網路上常常行走的人都會感受到言論空間的不斷緊張緊縮,而緊縮的力量並不是來自已經被進步氛圍所蔑視、嘲諷的所謂保守群眾;相反的,政治正確的強大壓力不斷來自那些不容許任何異議、執意維護極端進步價值的正義公民。

講一個很出名的例子,2015年輔仁大學發生性侵案件,夏林清教授應受害女學生要求加入處理案件的工作小組。由於她提醒女生冷靜思考,不要太輕易就受害者的位置,這個說法引發激烈的批判。強調女性受害的極端保護主義氛圍不斷延燒,最終夏林清被迫去職。2018年夏提起訴訟,教育部敗訴,夏得到平反,但是恐慌憤怒狂潮的效應已經形成對性別言論的制約。同樣的,2016年美國西北大學教授Laura Kipnis因為發表文章批判校園裡越來越嚴厲的反性騷擾政策措施,被一些號稱女性主義的學生抗議她的言論讓學生不敢報告受害,要求校方處置她,也是奮鬥了好幾年才平息風波。

這些例子都反映:和女性主義、言論自由、#MeToo、校園性政治、性別平等相關的議題,已經在當代新的女性主義正義感之下,成為敏感而嚴厲的話題,很容易引發非理性的言論檢查以及更嚴重的後果。

另外一個的例子就是今年巴以開戰以來,美國大學校園裡對支持以色列或巴勒斯坦發生了尖銳的對立,其中支持巴勒斯坦的言論很快就被貼標籤歸於反猶言論,支持以色列的言論則是正義的默認底線,這裡面當然反映了西方國家一貫對穆斯林國家和宗教的成見。前幾天,哈佛大學、麻省理工學院、賓州大學等等菁英大學的校長被傳喚去國會接受質詢,認為他們沒有積極檢查並禁止校園裡的反猶言論,沒有捍衛正義。70餘位議員還聯名寫信給各校董事會,要求施壓校長們辭職或撤職。目前賓州大學校長已經辭職,另外兩位校長還在抵抗壓力。

這些例子都提醒我們:不要把暴力壓力的言論檢查,直接等同於保守價值或是威權象徵。因為事實上,剛才提到的例子裡的言論檢查,都出自擁護性別平等、保護弱者、現代開明的正義道德高地,其中所隱含的道德傲慢,則使得言論檢查的態度和處置都更加嚴厲。

大家可以反思,在今天的台灣,我們可以公開討論或質疑現行的性平政策或反性騷擾相關法規的正當性或可行性,而不會遭致群起圍攻或者官方調查嗎?我們可以輕鬆自在的講色情笑話或挑戰同志婚姻法律,而不必擔心被控性別歧視?我們可以公開自由的表達認同中華人民共和國,渴望兩岸統一,而不會引來被醜化被斥責甚至以國安理由被調查嗎?

社交媒體中充斥著各種類似的例子和具體的司法案例,它們都證實在這個號稱言論自由平等的世界裡,知識暴力、噤聲、和言論檢查都比我們想像的貼近生活。而目前能最有效揮舞這些權力的人,不是那些被人蔑視醜化嘲諷的保守群眾,而是自命正確道德自滿傲慢的進步公民。高言大智和普世價值的使用和指涉都變得更為流動、複雜。這,是討論像是言論自由這樣的價值時不能不注意的嚴重問題。

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附錄:課前提問如下

  1. When revisiting the arguments, conceptual distinctions and cases presented in your 1991 article, how have you perceived and experienced the development of the spread of English in the Third World since the publication of the article? Have the terms of the debate(s), questions and problems surrounding it changed? Has your perspective shifted? We are also interested in learning about your view on the Bilingual 2030 Policy, specifically, on the main goals that would allow to implement the policy in Taiwan: “The following six goals will be the main focuses: accelerating the development of bilingual higher education; balancing and optimizing bilingual conditions for schools at the senior high school level and below; developing digital learning; expanding provision of affordable English proficiency test; raising civil servants’ English proficiency; and establishing an administrative body dedicated to policy promotion and implementation. These joint efforts will elevate the overall efficacy of the policy, and Taiwan’s next generation will be equipped with better international competitiveness by adding bilingual capabilities to their professional expertise.” [Reference: National Development Council, Bilingual 2030: https://www.ndc.gov.tw/en/Content_List.aspx?n=BF21AB4041BB5255].
  2. In the introduction to “Another Look at the Spread of English,” you clarify the basic premise of your paper: “This paper then proposes to examine these blind spots in an effort to expose the assumptions of the researchers as well as to review, from the Third World’s vantage point, the limited relevance of empiricist and behavioristic approaches in sociolinguistic research. The basic premise of the present observation, in short, is that language adoption always takes place within contexts of power, which have preemptively constituted the adoption yet are at the same time changed by the adoption. With this in view, it would be to the advantage of the Third World to look into these power maneuvers and reflect upon their impact so as to gain some insights into the predicament that the Third World finds itself in.”

With the various kinds of theoretical and practical shortcomings of a descriptive and empirical approach of the spread of English in mind, how could we prevent possible shortcomings of a historical-political approach (which we assume are of a different kind from those applying to a descriptive and empirical approach)? A natural concern is that political, historical and social accounts are also penetrated by structures of (epistemic) power ultimately leaving less privileged political, social and historical accounts and experiences behind. How can we critically enhance our way of questioning by means of paying attention to the use of English within contexts of power, especially, when it is hard to (sometimes) recognize and control its great unconceptualized and unintended political, social and historical impact in everyday life? 

  1. In your 2005 article, you clarify:

“As someone who has just gone through the harrowing experience of a legal struggle against the onslaught of conservatives over provision of sex-related information on the internet, I am writing this letter not only to express my gratitude for all of you who had braved the stigma to show support for me and the sex rights of marginal subjects, but also to call to action a formidable line of defence against conservative efforts to silence sexual dissidence.” (Ho 2005, 147).

“[…] my friends and colleagues joined me in turning this event into an opportunity for further social education and sexual activism. […] On the last day of court, 28 May, I was even allowed to defend my own case in front of the three presiding judges. Taking advantage of the first opportunity to make a statement in court, I delivered a 90-minute speech detailing the nature and methodology of sexuality studies, the structure and content of the website, and refuted the numerous errors in the prosecutor’s allegations […]” (Ho 2005, 148).

“While the not-guilty verdict has restored some faith in the sanity of Taiwanese society, I was still saddened that the possible prosecution of the provision of web hyperlinks has already produced a chilling effect that threatens the freedoms of speech and expression of marginal subjects as well as researchers. […] The court case may be over, but the fight for sex rights and freedoms of speech and information is far from over. I may have the advantage of social status and professional prestige in winning this case, but many more cases are pending and need our attention as well as support. […] The convergence of these cases demonstrates a growing intolerance of the lifestyle and cultural practices of marginal subjects, which warrants our serious attention and intervention.” (Ho 2005, 149).

The last reference we examined in class was Kristie Dotson’s article: “Tracking Epistemic Violence, Tracking Practices of Silencing” (2011). There, K. Dotson holds:

“[…] to communicate we all need an audience willing and capable of hearing us. The extent to which entire populations of people can be denied this kind of linguistic reciprocation as a matter of course institutes epistemic violence.” (Dotson 2011, 238).

“Epistemic violence is a failure of an audience to communicatively reciprocate, either intentionally or unintentionally, in linguistic exchanges owing to pernicious ignorance. […] In what follows, I will identify two practices of silencing, testimonial quieting and testimonial smothering. I will identify these practices by showing how an audience commits different forms of epistemic violence against a speaker. The problem of testimonial quieting occurs when an audience fails to identify a speaker as a knower. A speaker needs an audience to identify, or at least recognize, her as a knower in order to offer testimony.” (Dotson 2011, 242).

“[…] testimonial smothering is the truncating of one’s own testimony in order to ensure that the testimony contains only content for which one’s audience demonstrates testimonial competence. Three circumstances identify testimonial smothering in a testimonial exchange: 1) the content of the testimony must be unsafe and risky; 2) the audience must demonstrate testimonial incompetence with respect to the content of the testimony to the speaker; and 3) that testimonial incompetence must follow from, or appear to follow from, pernicious ignorance.” (Dotson 2011, 248).

To comprehend the complexities of your experience and of others involving silencing sexual dissidence, we may draw on Dotson’s theoretical framework encompassing forms of epistemic violence (conservative audiences not being able to reciprocate communicatively due to harmful ignorance), quieting (conservative audiences not being able to treat you as a epistemic contributor or knower) and smothering (conservative audiences being incompetent to listening to what is unfamiliar bodies of knowledge and skills to them). Would these collection of categories do justice to your experience and the legal struggle you had to endure and face? What else should we include to recognize, honor and comprehend your experience? What other factors would allow such a comprehension? 

  1. This class has made continuous efforts to comprehend and exercise the role of listening in the pragmatics of linguistic communication. Speech proficiency has been just one part of this communication class. The other part has been directed to listening proficiency. The former cannot be understood without the latter. Based on your experience and of your friends and colleagues joining you in taking the legal struggle you recount in your article as an opportunity for social education and sexual activism, what has this valuable collection of experiences have shown you about the pragmatics of linguistic communication that you would like to share today for the sake of exercising better practices as listeners and interlocutors in contexts of debate and disagreement?